Class 12 Physical Education Chapter 12

                                     Training in Sports

1. Strength—Definition, Types and Methods of Improving Strength—Isometric, Isotonic and Isokinetic.
2. Endurance—Definition, Types and Methods of Develop Endurance— Continuous Training, Interval Training and Fartlek Training.
3. Speed—Definition, Types and Methods of Develop Speed—Acceleration Run and Pace Run.
4. Flexibility—Definition, Types and Methods to Improve Flexibility.
5. Coordinative Abilities—Definition and Types.

Important Questions 

1. Circuit training
2. Interval training
3. Continuous training
4.  Fartlek training
5. Weight training

1. Ballistic method
2.  Static stretching method
3.  Dynamic stretching method
4.  Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation technique

1. Acceleration Runs They test the ability to achieve high speed of locomotion from a stationary position or from a slow moving position. Acceleration ability is improved indirectly by improving on explosive strength, technique and movement frequency.
2. Short Sprints For direct improvement of acceleration, short sprints of 25 to 80 m are the best means. The maximum speed achieved by a sprinter from a stationary start is for about 6 sec. Various researches have shown that during a sprint run the speed also increases with time.
   At the end of 1st sec the approximate speed is 55% of maximum.
   At the end of 3rd sec the approximate speed is 91 % of maximum.
   At the end of 5th sec the approximate speed is 99% of maximum.

1. It is good for increasing strength and cardiorespiratory endurance.
2.  Several athletics can take part in the training programme at a time.
3.  It does not require any equipment and can be organised easily.
4.  This training method is not rigid; it is flexible in nature.
5.  It improves the efficiency of the heart and lungs.
6. It provides experience of nature.

1. Principle of Progression The principle of progression also makes us realise the need for proper rest and recovery. The overload should not be increased too rapidly. If the overload is increased too rapidly, it may result in injury or muscle damage.
2.  Principle of Specificity Principle of specificity states that exercising a certain part of component of the body primarily develops that part. It means that to become better at a particular exercise or skill, you must perform that exercise or skill.

1. Active Flexibility It is the ability to do movement for a longer distance without external help e.g. exercise without partner. .
2.  Passive Flexibility It is the ability to do movement for a greater distance with external help e.g. stretching exercise with the help of a partner. It is always more than active flexibility.

1. Reaction Time Time taken to respond to a given stimulus, e.g. start in races.
2. Acceleration Ability Ability of the body to achieve maximum possible speed in’minimum possible time e.g. 50 m run, 60 m run, 80 m run etc.
3.  Speed of Movement Time taken by a muscle or group of muscles to complete a movement e.g. 100 m race from start to finish.
4.  Locomotor Ability Ability of the body to maintain maximum speed for maximum duration e.g. maintenance phase in 100 m race.
5.  Speed Endurance Ability of the body to perform any movement speedily under the condition of fatigue e.g. pace races.

1.  Acceleration runs (sprints)
2. Pace races (speed endurance)

1.  An athlete should commence his training with around 75% of his maximum speed.
2. He should move gradually towards 100% of his maximum speed.
3. The total number of runs per unit (in one day) should be between 6 and 12, depending upon the capacity of the athlete.
4.  Acceleration runs should be started after proper warming up.
5. Training at maximum speed in early morning should be avoided.
6.  In case of pain or cramp in muscles, training should be discontinued.

1. Acceleration Runs A good athlete generally accelerates ter the first 30-60 “m, so the acceleration should be performed for 30-60 m only.
   
   Intensity — High; 90% and above nature
2.  Pace Races When an athlete has accelerated to his maximum speed, he should maintain this speed for maximum duration without any slowing down. The method to be followed in these – races involves the following.
   (i) Intensity should be 60-80%
   (ii) Repetitions should be 2-6
   (iii) Distance should be 60-600 m
   In pace races, the speed can be increased by
   • increasing the stride length.
   • lifting the knee higher.
   • developing coordination between arms and legs.

1. General warming up
2. Specific warming up .

1.  It raises the body temperature.
2.  It creates tension in the muscles and makes the joints comparatively active.
3. It improves metabolic reaction.
4. It reduces the chances of muscular injuries.

1. Isometric Exercises or Static Contraction The literal meaning of the word isometric is constant length, i.e. iso means constant and metric means length.
   In this contraction, muscles work against a resistance but there is no change in the length of muscle. No external movement is visible to a third person, e.g. leg press, pushing a wall, squat position, holding leg at 45°.
2.  Isokinetic Exercises The literal meaning of the term isokinetic is constant speed, i.e. iso means constant and kinetic means motion.
   It is defined as maximal contraction with constant speed over the full range of movement, e.g. cycling, arm stroke jn butterfly style swimming etc.

1.  Slow Pace Continuous Method In this method,
   Intensity (rate of doing work) —Low
   Distance — Long (10-30 km)
   Heart rate — 140-160 beats/m in
2. Fast Pace Continuous Method
   Intensity — High
   Distance — Less (2-10 km)
   Heart rate— 160-180 beats/min
3.  Variable Pace Method
   Intensity— Between low and high
   Distance — 8-20 km
   Heart rate— 140-180 beats/min (1×3)

1. Interval Training Method In this method, the whole workload is divided into smaller load periods with a rest period in between them. Incomplete recovery is given in intervals.
   
   In this method, heart rate increases from normal to 180 beats/min. The bouts of load are repeated when the heart rate comes down to about 120 beats/min.
   Interval training method is of two types
   (a) Slow or Extensive Interval Method
   Intensity — Low (60-80%)
   Distance — 400-800 m
   Frequency — 15-25 repetitions
   (b) Fast or Intensive Interval Method
   Intensity — High (80-100%)
   Distance — 50-400 m,
   Frequency — 8-12 repetitions
2.  Fartlek Training Method
   Fartlek training was introduced by Dr Astrand. In this training, the athlete can run at any pace, can select any path, can run for any distance, but the course has to be completed in the specified time. The training involves running through streets, woods, river or seaside, running up and down a hill, forest and muddy track etc.

1. Preparatory Period In this period, the player achieves the physical fitness and skill efficiency necessary for competition.
   It is practiced in three phases:
   (a) Phase I In this phase, the player develops general abilities relating to physical fitness like basic skills. It is perfected after about four to six month’s practice.
   (b) Phase II In this phase, the player develops specific fitness abilities like speed, flexibility and coordination. It is about two month’s practice.
   (c) Phase III In this phase, the player develops tactics and strategies and achieves perfection for competition.
2. Competition Period In this period, the player actually plays in competition and aims to achieve top performance in competition. It is practiced in two phases
   Phase I In this phase, special attention is given towards specific exercises, skills and techniques, practical application of tactics in a game etc.
   4 Phase II In this phase, there is actual competition for the players.
3. Transitional Period This is the relaxation period after each competition.

1. Isometric Exercises They are those exercises in which the length of the muscles remain the same during workout. No external movement is visible to a third person. During an isometric contraction, the muscle develops tension but does not change its length. In isometric exercises, special instruments may be used, e.g. power rack.
   Advantages:
   (a) They can be performed anywhere.
   (b) In these exercises, less time is required.
   (c) In these exercises, less equipment is required.
   (d) They develop a high level of static and maximum strength.
   Disadvantage: It raises the blood pressure, and therefore it is not recommended for heart patients.
2.  Isotonic Exercises These are exercises in which movements are clearly visible in the concerned body part. Length of the muscles changes and work done is clearly visible. These exercises help muscles to also improve their flexibility along with developing strength in them.
   Isotonic contractions are of two types:
   (a) Concentric (b) Eccentric
   Advantages:
   (a) They develop dynamic strength.
   (b) They contribute to hypertrophy of muscles.
   Disadvantages:
   (a) In these exercises, there are chances of strain and stress injuries.
   (b) In these exercises, usually some equipment is required.
3.  Isokinetic Exercises In these exercises, there is movement along with continuous tension in both flexor and extensor muscles. Here, both the flexor and extensor muscles develop tension ” along with full range of movement (may be upward or downward) simultaneously. These require special equipment, e.g. cycling upward, swimming, weight training machines etc.
   Advantages:
   (a) They develop a high level of dynamic as well as explosive strength,
   (b) These are effective for almost every game.
   Disadvantages:
   (a) They require special types of equipment,
   (b) They must be performed under observation of a coach.

1.  General Circuit Training In this type of training, different muscle groups are given exercises in rotation.
   Number of stations – 5-10
   Intensity Frequency – 60-80%
   Frequency – 3 days per week
   Exercise performed – 30 sec, 1 min
   Rest between two stations -5 to 15 sec
   Rest between two circuits- 2 to 5 min
2. Specific Circuit Training In this training, specific muscle groups are given exercises at every station. Exercises are also similar to competitive stress e.g. circuit training for football, volleyball, badminton etc.
   
   Note: EP represents exercises to be performed, Ml represents muscles involved, CD represents physical fitness component developed.

1. A single teacher can supervise the training programme.
2. A large number of athletes (20-30) can be accommodated.
3. It can be performed anywhere — indoor, outdoor, on rooftop etc.
4. Any specific component of physical fitness can be developed.
5. Intensity or load can be increased if required.
6. All muscles of body can be exercised.
7. It is an interesting method of training.
8. It can be performed in bad weather also.

1. Active Flexibility It is performed without external help or self-movement of a part to the maximum range.
2. Passive Flexibility It is the ability of joints to move in their maximum range with external help.

1. Ballistic Method In ballistic method, the movement is performed with a swing in a rhythmic way.
2. Static Stretching Method In this method, the joint is stretched and held for 10 to 30 sec.
3. Dynamic Stretching Method In this method, activities are performed with a motion or movement in a full range.
4.  Post Isometric Stretch or PNF Technique This method is based on the principle of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation. PNF is a more advanced technique that involves both stretching (static + dynamic) techniques and contraction of the muscle groups being targeted. For gaining flexibility in the shortest possible time, PNF technique is the most appropriate method for developing flexibility.

                       Class 12 Physical Education Chapter 11 

                                Psychology and Sports

1. Understanding stress, anxiety and its management.
2. Coping strategies.
3. Personality, its dimensions and types; Rule of sports in personality.
4. Motivation, its type and technique.
5. Self-esteem and body image.
6. Psychological benefits of exercises.

1. Psychology is used in sport to enhance performance and to know the factors which affect our performance, like - anxiety, stress, personality, motivation, etc.
2. Optimum level of anxiety is essential to perform in games and sports.

1.  sportsmanship
2.  good character
3.  fair play
4.  cooperative and self- disciplined behaviour

1.  Genetics
2.  Brain chemistry
3. Environmental factors
4. Stress

1.  Feeling restlessness
2.  Muscular tension
3. Nervousness
4.  Headache
5.  Increased BP
6.  Confusion

1.  Uncertainty about Result Competitions provide challenge and stimulation. It is in the field of unpredictability. The outcome is not known. One is under pressure for one’s achievements.
2.  Level of Competition The more important the contest, the greater is the stress or level of anxiety for that particular competition.
3. Expectations of Spectators The spectators have a huge role or impact on how athletes feel. The expectations are more when it is a home venue.
4.  Possibility of Getting Hurt This can be a source of anxiety, especially in games like boxing, martial arts, gymnastics etc because the chances of injury are more.
5. Expectations of Success Some athletes take up the challenge and are psyched up to perform better and get success, whereas some are not coming upto the expectations and are psyched-out, which causes failure.

1.  Goal Setting Sportsmen should be encouraged to set a few ambitious but achievable long-term as well as medium-term goals, e.g. if a person wants to get a good position or a medal in Olympic Games, he should also set the goals for getting a position in Asian or National Games.
2.  Elaborate Arrangement of Competition Sports persons perform better in competitions if there are elaborate arrangements of competition. However, an inexperienced sportsperson may not be able to put up a good show.

1.  It analyses the behaviour of sportsmen.
2.  It identifies talent for specific sports.
3.  It creates a better learning situation.
4. It stabilises the performance of a sportsperson for a longer period.
5.  It is important from the research point of view.
6.  It encourages the players to perform better.

1.  Healthy Sports Environment A healthy sports environment plays a vital role in motivating the sportsperson. Healthy sport environment consists of proper humidity and temperature, smooth and clean sports fields, good quality of sports equipment and other facilities. .
2.  Positive Attitude For proper motivation, the coaches should try to encourage positive attitude among sportspersons. Players must think positively.
3.  Cash Prizes, Certificates and Trophies These are good incentives to sportspersons. Governments offer cash prizes to sportspersons who win.

1.  Keeping cool
2.  Yogic meditation
3.  Biofeedback
4.  Following a behaviour modification strategy
5. Progressive relaxation breathing technique
6. Somatic adjustment (control of cognitive processes)
7. Guidance from a technically trained sports psychologist

1.  Winning and losing gracefully.
2. Getting recognition, name and fame without using unfair means.
3.  Loyalty towards his/her team, game, institution or country.

1.  Make goals specific, measurable, and observable.
2.  Clearly identify time constraints.
3. Use moderately difficult goals; they are superior to either easy or very difficult goals.
4. Write goals down and regularly monitor progress.
5. Use a mix of process, performance, and outcome goals.
6.  Use short range goals to achieve long range goals.
7.  Set team as well as individual performance goals.
8. Set practice as well as competition goals.
9.  Make sure goals are internalised by the athlete.
10. Consider personality and individual differences in goal setting.

1. Participation in Physical Activities Physical exercises of moderate to high intensity, like aerobic exercises, are one of the”best methods to relieve stress. Physically fit persons are more resistant to the effects of stress than others.
2.  Achieve a High Level of Physical Fitness Achieving fitness is important to manage stress advantageously, while not eliminating it totally. Too little or too severe stress both lower performance in sports.

1.  Learning of Motor Skills Sports psychology plays a major role in the learning of motor skills. Motor ; skills learning depends on the dividual’s level of readiness.
2.  Analysing the Behaviour of Sportsmen Performance of a player depends upon the behaviours which are influenced by various factors such as sex differences, family conditions, personal background, heredity, growth, physical and mental maturity levels etc.
3.  Identifying Talent for Specific Sports Every sports has specific psychological demands, e.g. boxing requires more aggressiveness, whereas archery and shooting require more concentration.
4.  Stabilising the Performance for Longer Period It helps in stabilising the performance of a player for a longer period. Then the performance of the player largely depends upon his psychological make up and anxiety level.
5.  Important from Research Point of View Sports psychologists works in very close proximity to coaches to uplift the performance of players. Research findings help in promotion of sports and games.
6.  Encouraging the Players to Make a Comeback in Professional Sports Sports psychology encourages the players, who, due to injury or some accident, are forced to take a long break from their professional career, to return to their sport.

1.  Intrinsic Motivation This motivation is within an individual and guides him/her to perform better. It is based upon needs, interest, nature, emotions, social need etc. It also depends upon knowledge of result, personal factor, competition zeal etc. He/she participates in sports for his/her own sake.
2.  Extrinsic Motivation This motivation depends upon environmental factors. It has a great impact on an individual’s performance. It is of various types like rewards, punishment, active participation, test evaluation, teaching methods, equipment and surroundings etc.

                     Class 12 Physical Education Chapter 10

                               Biomechanics and Sports

1. Polishing surfaces in contact
2. Lubrication
3. Use of ball bearings
4.  Streamlining
5. Changing the type of material used

1.  Newton’s First Law of Motion This law is also known as law of inertia. This law states that a body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will remain in motion at the same speed and in the same direction till any external force is applied on it to change that state.
2.  Newton’s Second Law of Motion This law states that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional tathe force producing it and inversely proportional to its mass.
   
3.  Newton’s Third Law of Motion This law states that to every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction.

1.  The Fulcrum It is the point at which the lever rotates or turns and which identifies the lever class by its position in relation to the other two parts. In human movement, the fulcrum is the joint which dictates the kind of action.
2.  The Force Arm It is the point at which the force is applied.
3.  The Load / Resistance Arm It is the point where the load or resistance is located.

1.  Propelling Force The propelling force produces certain effects depending upon its point and direction of application. If the application is directly through the projectile’s centre of gravity, only linear motion results from the force. As the projecting force is moved further from the centre of gravity, rotatory motion of the object increases at the expense of linear motion. If the force is below the object’s centre of gravity, backspin results. Forward spin results when the force is above the centre of gravity. When the force is off centre to the left, clockwise spin results and when it is off centre to right, counter clockwise spin occurs.
2.  Force of Gravity As soon as contact is broken with a projected object, the force of gravity begins to diminish the upward velocity of the object. Finally, gravity overcomes the effects of the upward component of the projectile’s motion and the object begins to descend. The factors that determine how soon gravity will cause the object to descend are
   (a) weight (mass) of the object
   (b) amount of force driving it upward
   (c) the effect of air resistance on the object.
3. Effect of Air Resistance As the speed of an object increases, air resistance has a greater retarding effect. The more surface area an object presents in the direction of movement, the greater will be the effect of air resistance.

1. Heel Strike This stage starts the stance phase. It begins when the heel first touches the ground and continues until the complete foot is on the ground.
2.  Early Flat Foot It starts from the moment when the complete foot is on the ground. It occurs when the body’s centre of gravity passes over the top of the toe. The main purpose is to allow the foot to act as a shock absorber.
3. Late Flat Foot This stage starts when the body’s Centre of Gravity passes in front of the neutral position. This stage lasts till when the heel lifts off the ground.
4.  Heel Rise This stage starts when the heel begins to leave the ground. In this stage, the ground forces that go through the foot are very significant.
5.  Toe Off This stage begins when the toes leave the ground completely. This stage continues until the beginning of the swing phase.
6.  Swing Phase This stage starts when one foot is on the ground and the other one in the air. This is shorter than the stance phase.

1.  Static Friction The opposing force that comes into play when one body tends to move over the another surface but the actual motion has not yet started.
2.  Limiting Friction Limiting friction is the maximum opposing force that comes into play when one body is just on the verge of moving over the surface of another body.
3.  Kinetic Friction Kinetic friction is the opposing force that comes into play when one body is actually moving over the surface of another body.

1.  Going Straight (Rectilinear) Covering a straight distance.
2. Going in a Curved Path (Curvilinear) It is possible for a body to move along a curved path and still satisfy the conditions of linear motion.
   Angular Motion Also known as rotation, rotatory motion or circular motion. This occurs when a body moves on a circular path about a central line so that all parts of the body move through the same angle in the same direction in the same time.
   
   The central line which lies at right angles to the plane of motion is known as the axis of rotation. It may be physical or imaginary. It also may be inside or outside the body.

1.  Swing Phase The swing phase begins with the toe off the ground and ends with the foot landing. Since the body moves faster in running, the leg should move forward with more speed. It is flexed considerably more as compared to walking. The leg’s weight is brought closer to the hip, since the lever is shortened by flexion of the knee, reducing the moment of inertia and increasing the angular velocity.
2.  Support Phase The foot strikes the ground under the knee and under the centre of gravity. The leg strikes the ground with the ball of the foot. During the propulsive action, the vertical components should be kept as small as possible, being just enough to counteract gravity’s downward pulj-so that a great proportion of the force can be used effectively in driving the body forward , rather than be wasted in producing a bouncing run.
   Arms swing must be co-ordinated with the legs to keep the balance of the rotatory effect of the leg swing on the trunk. Since the legs are moving faster, the arms must move faster.

                         Class 12 Physical Education Chapter 9 

                                         Sports Medicine

• Concept & definition
• Aims & Scope of Sports Medicine
• Impact of Surfaces& Environment on Athletes
• Sports Injuries:-Classifications, Causes & Preventive Measures
• Management of Injuries

1. Scientific promotion of sports.
2. Developing preventive healthcare.
3. Providing sports medical extension services.

1. Classification based on time taken for the tissue to become injured
   (a) Acute injuries (b) Overuse injuries
2.  Classification based on tissue type
   (a) Soft tissue injuries
   (b) Hard tissue injuries
   (c) Special tissue injuries
3.  Classification based on severity affected
   (a) Mild injuries
   (b) Moderate injuries
   (c) Severe injuries

1.  Warm-up and Cool-down A well structured warm-up and cool-down is necessary to increase blood and nutrient flow and concentration. Also it helps in relaxation, improved flexibility and recovery of muscles.
2. Planning a Session Careful planning of training and rehabilitation sessions allows gradual specific adaptations. It reduces the damage to the tissues as a result of training.
3.  Using Protective Equipment The use of protective equipment like proper footwear, helmets, goggles, gum shield, shin pads and gloves prevents many sports injuries.
4.  Psychological training Some form of mental skills training and practice could reduce injuries by reducing anxiety and improving concentration.
5. Adherence to the rules If all performers are aware of and adhere to the rules and laws of the particular sport, then injuries can be reduced to great extent.

1. Warm Weather Warm weather is often accompanied by high humidity. It is the most common adverse environmental factor encountered by athletes. Warm weather impacts hydration of body. Heat and humidity will increase the body’s production of sweat.
2. High altitude High altitude is technically any altitude where oxygen is less than sea level. At higher altitudes the body is forced to produce more red blood cells to carry oxygen, which is available in less quantity. It affects peak performance of athletes.
3. Crowd noise Crowd noise is the most important man-made factor which affects athlete performance. Because of high noise, athletes cannot concentrate and also teams cannot hear their own signals.

1.  Fracture Fracture is a crack or full break in a bone or bones. It can be closed or open It has symptoms of intense pain, loss of function, swelling, bruising and possible deformity.
2.  Dislocation Dislocation means partial or total separation of a joint. It most commonly affects ball and socket joints. It’s symptoms include pain, bruising, swelling, loss of function and deformity.
3. Green Stick Green stick is a fracture in a young, soft bone. In green stick the bone bends and breaks. This fracture is very difficult to detect.
4.  Stress Fracture Stress fracture is a micro fracture in bones. It occurs usually in the tibia. It leads to localised pain and tenderness.
5.  Concussion Concussion is a head injury with a temporary loss of brain function. Concussion can cause a variety of physical, cognitive and emotional symptoms in athletes.

1. Anatomical Factors These are related to make up of the body. Leg length differences and
   body misalignment can lead to unequal forces being transferred to the tissues. It can cause injuries to ankle, hip and back.
2. Age related causes As the body ages, it changes. It is less able to produce force, recovers slower and soft tissues lose the ability to stretch. Therefore it is more prone to injury.
3.  Training related causes Excessive repetitive loading of the tissues is needed for successive adaptation. However without suitable recovery, tissues never have the chance to adapt and can fail.
4.  Equipment selection factors These are related to the suitability of equipment. An instance is incorrect footwear,-which will not protect the foot and ankle adequately. It also will not distribute forces effectively. Thus it increases the risk of injury.
5.  Impact and contact causes Impact or contact can be with objects, surfaces or other people. These injuries are common in contact sports like football, rugby, hockey etc. Also they are common in more dangerous sports like motor racing, boxing and skiing.

Class 12 Physical Education Chapter 8 Physiology and Sports

1.  Exercise reduces the loss of elasticity from the lungs and chest wall.
2.  Exercise increases muscle strength and hypertrophy by increasing the cross-sectional area of the Slow Twitch Fibres (STF) and Fast Twitch Fibres (FTF)., This slows down ageing.
3.  The body composition changes due to exercise by reducing the fat coment of the body, thus slowing down the ageing process.
4. Exercise improves flexibility by strengthening the musculoskeletal systems, thereby preventing the stiffening of joints. This also slows the ageing process.

1.  Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped by the heart in 1 min. This increases directly with increasing exercise intensity.
2.  The heart rate increases from a resting rate of 72 beats / min to 150 beats / min or even more.
3.  The stroke volume, meaning the amount of blood pumped into the Aorta with every heartbeat, increases from a resting volume of 70 – 90 mL to 100 – 120 mL per beat.
4. Exercise increases the plasma volume of blood by 12%, but total blood volume may reduce slightly.
5. Blood flow is redistributed with more blood going to the muscles, heart and skin, while blood in the kidneys and abdomen is reduced.
6.  Blood pressure increases due to exercise because there is more blood flowing in the blood vessels.
7. Cardiac hypertrophy occurs, meaning that the heart size increases to take care of the larger requirement of blood during exercise.

1. Muscular strength This is the maximum force or tension a muscle or a muscle group can exert against a resistance; Physiologically the muscle will increase in strength only if it has to increase its workload beyond what is ordinarily required of it.
2.  Power This is the ability’ of the body to release maximum muscle contraction in the shortest possible time.
3.  Speed This is the rapidity with which one can repeat successive movements of the same pattern.
4.  Muscular endurance This is the ability of a muscle or muscle group to perform repeated contractions against a resistance / load or to sustain contraction for an extended period of time with less discomfort and more rapid recovery.
5. Agility This is the ability of a person to change direction or body position as quickly as possible and regain body control to proceed with another movement.
6.  Flexibility This is a quality of the muscles, ligaments and tendons that enables the joints of the body to move easily through a complete range of movements.

1. Increase in heart size We cannot do the exercise on our heart directly, but when we perform any exercise regularly, our heart size increases. Exercising develops the muscles of the heart.
2.  Increase in heart rate Generally an adult has a heart rate of 72 beats per minute while resting, but when he exercises, his heart rate increases as per the intensity and duration of the exercise.
3.  Increase in stroke volume Stroke volume is the quantity of blood which the heart pumps out in a single stroke. Due to the heart’s size increasing, the stroke volume increases.
4.  Decrease in cholesterol level Regular exercise reduces the cholesterol level in our blood, which has a direct link with the blood pressure.
5.  Increase in number and efficiency of capillaries Regular exercise increases the number of capillaries and their efficiency.
6.  Reduced risk of heart diseases Regular exercise gradually reduces stress related hormones from circulating in the blood. This results in increase of blood flow in the blood vessels, which in turn, lowers the risk of building up of plaque which affects the heart. Hence, regular exercise . reduces the risk of heart diseases.

1. Increasing the lung volume and capacity Vital capacity, which is the maximal volume of air forcefully expired after a maximal inspiration, in a normal untrained person may be 3-4 litres, but in a trained athlete this goes up to 5-6 litres.
2. Reducing the breathing frequency In a normal untrained individual, the resting breathing frequency is about 12-20 breaths/min, whereas in trained athletes, it comes down to 7-8 breaths/min.
3. Maximising the minute ventilation Maximum minute ventilation in an untrained individual is about 100 L/min, whereas in trained athletes it increases to more than 150-160 L/min.
4. Increasing the tidal volume In an untrained individual, tidal volume is about 500 mL/breath, whereas in trained persons, it increases to more than 600-700 mL/breath.
5. Increasing the ventilatory efficiency Normally, 15 L of air is required to get 1 L of oxygen but a trained individual gets the same amount of oxygen, i.e. one litre, from less air i.e. 12 L.
6. Increasing the pulmonary diffusion During maximal level of exercise, more alveoli become active for diffusion. The size of the alveoli is also increased, which provides more space for diffusion of gases such as oxygen (o2) and carbon dioxide(co2).

                    Class 12 Physical Education Chapter 7 

                          Test and Measurement in Sports

Key Points :

• Measurement of Muscular strength-Kraus-weber test
• Motor Fitness Test-AAPHER
• Measurement of Cardio-Vascular Fitness-Harward Step Test/Rock Port Test
• Measurement of flexibility-Sit & Reach Test

Rikli Jones-Senior Citizen Fitness Test
1. Chair stand test for lower body strength
2. Arm curl test for upper body flexibility
3. Chair sit & reach test for lower body flexibility
4. Back-scratch test for lower body flexibility
5. Eight foot up & go test for agility
6. Six minute walk test for aerobic endurance

Measurement:- Measurement refers to the process of administrating a test to obtain a quantitative data. It can also be said that the measurement aids evaluation process In which various tools and techniques are used in the collection of data.
“Measurement is a process by which the level of performance, fitness, ability, Knowledge, personality and skills are measured with the help of various standard Tests”.
Importance of Measurement in Physical Education & Sports.

• To know about the progress
• Individual centered training program
• Helps in selection of athletes
• To study the development of athletes
• Motivation of an athlete
• To predict in advance the performance potentials
• To prepare norms and standards
• To measure current fitness status
• To achieve goals and objectives of the activity
• To conduct research

Measurement of Muscular strength-Kraus-weber test:-
The six items of the Kraus-Weber Muscular Strength Test:
1. Strength of abdominal plus psoas muscles
2. Strength of abdominal minus psoas muscles
3. Strength of psoas and lower abdominal muscles
4. Strength of upper back muscles
5. Strength of lower back muscles
6. Floor touch test
Hans Kraus had devised these tests after Fifteen Years of close study of individual cases. A battery by six tests was prepared. The purpose of the tests was the measure Minimum muscle power necessary for healthy living. Because this is a Minimum Test, one should be able to perform all six parts. The tests are as follows:
1. Position : Lie down on back, legs straight, feet held down, hands behind neck. The examiner holds down the feet and the student rolls to a sitting position.

2. Position : Lie down on back, Knees bent, Feet held down, Hands behind back.

3. Position : Lie on back, hands behind neck.

Action : Lift both legs up 8 to 10 inches from floor hold for a count of 10 seconds.
4. Position Lie face down. Place small pillows under hips. Lower body held down, hands behind neck.

5. Position : Lie face down, Place small pillow under hips, Upper body held down, head resting on hands.
Action : Lift upper body off floor and hold for a count of 10 seconds.

6. Position : Stand feet together, knees straight.
Action : Bend slowly forward and see how close you can come and touch the floor. If you can touch, measure distance from finger to floor. If you can touch, hold for count of three, If you can’t touch, measure distance from finger to floor.
The above tests are considered useful and preferable from the point of view of equipment as well as time.

7.3 Motor Fitness Test-AAPHER(American Alliance for Physical Health Education & recreation

The Aapher—Youth Physical Tests were created in 1957. During the years 1957- 58 these tests were applied to 8500 School Children of classes 5 to 8 in the United States of America. On the basis of this study standard rooms were created. Studies were conducted on 2200 College level students in 1960 and percentile rooms were created, Similarly Percentile rooms were created on the basis of studies belonging to 50 institutions. New percentile rooms were created again in 1965 on the basis of age. This study included
9200 boys and girls in the 10 to 17 years age group.
1. Pull Ups Boys is an activity meant only for boys:
Equipment: A metal or wooden bar approximately 1½ inches in diameter is preferred. A doorway gym bar can be used and if no regular equipment is available, a piece of pipe or even rungs of a ladder can serve the purpose.
Description: The bar should be high enough so that the pupil can hang with his arms and legs fully extended and feet free from the floor. He should use the overhand grasp. After coming in hanging position, the pupil raises his body by his arms until his claim can be placed over the bar. Then he lowers his body to a full hang as in starting position. The exercises is repeated as many times as possible.

Rules
(i) Each Student will be allowed one trial.
(ii) The body must out swing during the execution of the movement.
(iii) The knees must not be raised and the kicking of legs is not permitted.
Scoring: Record the number of completed Pull Ups.
2. Flexed Arm Hang: This activity is meant only for girls.
Equipment: A horizontal bar is used. The okameter of the rod ought to be 1½ inches. A stop watch is needed is record time.
Description: The height of the bar should be adjusted so it is approximately equal to the pupil’s standing height. The pupil should use an overhang grasp. With the assistance of two spotters, one in front and one in back of Pupil the Pupil raises her body off the floor to a position where the Chin is above the bar, the elbows are flexed and the Chest is close to the bar. The Pupil holds this position as long as possible.

Rules:
(1) The Stopwatch to started as soon as the Subject takes the hanging position.
(2) The watch is stopped when:
(i) Pupil’s Chin touches the bar
(ii) Pupil’s head hits backward to keep Chin above the bar.
(iii) Pupil’s Chin falls below the level of the bar.

3. Sit-Ups (Flexed Leg), Boys and Girls
Scoring: The length of time the subject holds the hanging position will be recorded in seconds. Sit-ups (flexed leg)
Equipment: Clean floor, Mat or Dry Turf and Stop-Watch.
Description: The Pupil lies on his back with his knees bent, feet on the floor and heels not more than 12 inches from the buttocks. The angle at the knees should be less than go degrees. The Pupil puts his hands in the back of his neck with fingers clasped and places his elbows squarely on the mat, floor and turf. His feet are held by his partner to keep them in touch with surface. The Pupil heightens his abdominal muscles and brings his head to knees. This action constitutes one sit up. The number of correctly extended
Sit ups performed in 60 seconds shall be the score.

Rules:
(1) No rectory is permitted between sit ups.
(2) Keep the fingers clasped behind his neck.
        (a) Keep the fingers clasped behind his neck.
        (b) Bring both elbows forward in starting to sit up without pushing off the floor with an elbow.
        (c) Return to starting position with elbows flat on the surface before sitting up again.
Scoring: Only the Sit ups a pupil is able to do in 60 Seconds are recorded.
4. Shuttle Run (Boys and Girls):
Equipment: Two blocks of wood, 2 inches x 2 inches x 4 inches and a stopwatch. Pupils must wear sneakers or run bare footed.
Description: Two parallel lines are marked on the floor 30 feet apart. The width of a regulation Volleyball Court serves as a suitable area. Place the blocks of wood behind one of the lines.
The pupil starts from behind one of the lines. On the signal “Ready” or “Go” the pupils runs to the blocks, picks one up runs back to the starting line and places the block behind the line. He then runs back and picks up the second block which he carries back across the Starting Line.

Rules: Allow two trials with some rest between.
Scoring: Record the time of the better of the two trials.
5. Standing Broad (Long) Jump:
Equipment: Mat, Floor or Outdoor Jumping pit and Tape Measure.
Description: Pupil stands with the feet several inches apart and the toes just behind the take off line. Preparatory to jumping, the pupil swings the arms backward and bends the knees. The jump is accomplished by simultaneously get bending the knees and swinging forward the arms.

Rules:
(1) Allow three trials.
(2) Measure from the take off line to the feet or other part of the body that touches the floor nearest the take off line.
Scoring: Record the best of the three trials.
6. 50 Yards Run (Boys and Girls):

Equipment: Two stop watches or one with a split second times.
Description: It is preferable to administer this test to two pupils at a time. The starter will use the commands: “Ready” and “Go” the race comes to an end at the “Finishing Line”, Rules, the stop watch is kept on from the word “Go” to the finishing line, a time is recorded to the one tenth of a second.

7. Soft-Ball Throw (Boys and Girls):

Equipment: Soft Ball 12, Measure Tape.
Description: Game is played in a football field on a field of similar size. Lines are drawn at a distance of five yards each. The pupil who throws the ball can throwe from a distance of 6 feet.

Rules:
(1) It is necessary to have the ball in one hand.
(2) Three chances are given to each player.
Scoring: Best of the three throws is counted.
8. 600 Yards Run or Walk (Boys and Girls)
Equipment:
1. A Track 2. A Stop Watch
Description: Pupils take their positions at the standing start. The race starts with command words: “Ready” and “Go”. As many as Six Pupils can participate at a time.
Rules: Walking is permitted but the object is to cover the distance in shortest possible time.
Scoring: Record in Minutes and Seconds.
7.4 Measurement of Cardio-Vascular Fitness-Harward Step Test/Rock Port Test
1. Harward Step Test-Aerobic Fitness (Recovery time)
     100*(Total test time in seconds (the time for which the athlete was able to do the stepping up and down)
     2*(the total number of heartbeats for all the three time intervals)
2. Rockport Fitness Test-One mile Walking test
        VO2max=132.853-(0.0769*Weight)-(0.3877*Age)+(6.315*gender)-
        (3.2649*time)-(0.1565*Heart Rate)
Harvard Step Test
Harvard Step Test: Brouha (1943) constructed a very simple and promising field test for measuring cardiovascular endurance of human beings by using easily available and inexpensive equipment.

Equipment: A stopwatch, 20-inch high bench, metronome or tape recorder (optional), stethoscope (optional).
Test Administration: The tester gives a demonstration of the stepping up style to be followed by the subjects during the test. If the metronome is 103  available, it is set to a speed of 120 beats per minute. Depending upon the availability of 20-inch high bench area and pulse count testers, a group of 1 to 4 subjects may be asked to start the stepping up and down exercise in consonance with the sounds of metronome and by starting the stopwatch at the signal ‘go’. If the metronome is not available, then the tester should do enough rehearsal of counting the pace up-up-down-down, 30 times a minute. The subject is given instructions that on the command ‘up’ or the first sound of the metronome, he/she should place one foot on the bench; on the second command ‘up’ or the second sound of the metronome, he/she should place both feet fully on the bench with the body erect straightening the legs and back.
Immediately after reaching the erect posture, she should step down one foot at a time as the tester gives command ‘down-down’ (third and fourth sounds of the metronome). The subject is instructed to repeat the stepping up and down exercise in the above manner for five minutes at the pace of 30 steps per minute. The subject is also asked to take off and step-down with the same foot each time. The tester starts the stopwatch simultaneously with the first take off by the subject/subjects and stops the watch after exactly five minutes by giving the ‘stop’ signal to the subjects who immediately sit down on the bench. In case, any subject stops the exercise or slows down the pace of the exercise due to fatigue or exhaustion, his or her duration of exercise performed at the correct pace is noted (in seconds) and is asked to stop and sit down Exactly one minute after the exercise, the tester starts counting the pulse rate and records the same for the duration from 1 to 1.5, 2 to 2 5 and 3 to 3.5 minutes.
Scoring: The pulse of all the 3 half minute counts recorded are added together and a fitness index is calculated by the following formula:

7.5 Measurement of flexibility-Sit & Reach Test
1. Test for absolute flexibility
2. Test of Relative flexibility
       a. Measure of linear flexibility test
       b. Rotary (Angular measure flexibility test)
I. Sit and Reach Test: This test is used to measure the flexibility of the back and leg (hamstring muscle) It is a kind of absolute and linear test of flexibility.
Equipment: A testing box or a flexomeasure and a yardstick.
Procedure: The subject is asked to remove shoes and place his/her feet against the testing box while sitting on the floor with straight knees. Now the subject is asked to place one hand on top of the other so that the middle finger of both hands are together at the same length. The subject is instructed to lean forwards and place his/her hands over the measuring scale lying on the top of the box with its 10 inch mark coinciding with the front edge of the testing box. Then, the subject is asked to slide his/her hands along the measuring scale as far as possible without bouncing and to hold the farthest position for at least one second.

Score: Each subject is given three trials and the highest score nearest to an inch is recorded and 10 inches are subtracted from the recorded reading to obtain the flexibility score which is compared with the standards given in.
Table source: Based on personal experience.
Validity: This test only measures the flexibility of the lower back and hamstrings, and is a valid measure of this.
Reliability: The realibility of this test will depend on the amount of warm-up that is allowed, and whether the same procedures are followed each time the test is conducted. Most sit and reach testing norms are based on no previous warm-up, though the best results will be achieved after a warm up or if the test is proceeded by a test such as the endurance test which can act as a warm up. If a warm up is used, it is important to have a standardized warm up and test order and repeat the same conditions for each time the test is conducted.
Advantages: The sit and reach test is a common test of flexibility, and is an easy and quick test to perform. If using the standard testing procedure, there is a lot of published data to use for comparison.
Disadvantages: Variations in arm, leg and trunk length can make comparisons between individuals misleading. This test is specific to the range of motion and muscle and joints of the lower back and hamstrings, and may not be relevant to other parts of the body.

(a) Chair Stand test for lower body strength
Purpose and Daily Benefit: The purpose of the Chair-Stand is to measure the strength of lower body of adults over 60 years of age. Lower body strength is important for activities such as getting out of a chair, on the bus, out of the car, and rising up from a kneeling position in the house or garden. The, strength of your lower body can directly affect the ease with which you perform the activities you do every day.
Equipment: Chair without arms, Stopwatch.
Procedure: Place the chair against a wall where it will be stable. Sit in the middle of the chair with your feet flat on the floor, shoulder width apart, back straight. Cross your arms at the wrist and place them against your chest. The test partner will tell you when to begin and will time you for 30 seconds, using the stopwatch. You will rise up to a full stand and sit again as many times as you can during the 30 second interval.
(a) Each time you stand during the test be sure you come to a full stand.
(b) When you sit, make sure you sit all the way down. Do not just touch your backside to the chair. You must fully sit between each stand.
(c) Do not push off your thighs, or off the seat of the chair with your hands to help you stand unless you have to.
(d) Keep your arms against your chest crossed and do not allow the arms to swing up as you rise.
(e) If you are on your way up to stand when time is called you will be given credit for that stand.

Scoring: The score is the number of completing correct chair stands in 30 minutes.
(b) Arm Curl test for upper body strength
Purpose: This test measures upper body strength and endurance.
Equipments Required: 4 pound weight (women, AAHPERD), 5 pound weight (women, SFT), 8 pound weight (for men). A chair without armrests, stopwatch. Procedure: The aim of this test is to do as many arm curls as possible in 30 seconds. This test is conducted on the dominant arm side (or strongest side). The subject sits on the chair, holding the weight in the hand using a suitcase grip (palm facing towards the body) with the arm in a vertically down position beside the chair. Brace the upper arm against the body so that only the lower arm is moving (tester may assist to hold the upper arm steady). Curl the arm up through a full range of motion, gradually turning the palm up (flexion with supination). As the arm is lowered through the full range of motion, gradually return to the starting position. The arm must be fully bent and then fully straightened at the elbow. The protocol for the AAHPERD test describes the administrator’s hand being placed on the biceps, and the lower arm must touch the tester’s hand for a full bicep curl to be counted. Repeat this action as many times as possible within 30 seconds.

Scoring: The score is given for the total number of controlled arm curls performed in 30 seconds.

(c) Chair Sit and Reach test for Lower Body Flexibility
The Chair Sit and Reach test is a part of the Senior Fitness Test Protocol, and is designed to test the functional fitness of seniors. It is a variation of the traditional sit and reach flexibility test.
Purpose: This test measures flexibility of lower body.
Equipments Required: Ruler, straight back or folding chair, (about 17 inches/44 cm high)
Procedure: The subject sits on the edge of a chair (placed against a wall for safety). One foot must remain flat on the floor. The other leg is extended forward with the knee straight, heel on the floor, the ankle bent at 90°. Place one hand on top of the other with tips of the middle fingers even. Instruct the subject to inhale, and then as they exhale, reach forward towards the toes by bending at the hip. Keep the back straight and head up. Avoid bouncing or quick movements, and never stretch to the point of pain. Keep the knee straight, and hold the reach for seconds. The distance is measured between the tip of the Chair sit & reach test for lower body flexibility fingertips and the toes. If the finger tips touch the toes then the score is zero. If they do not touch, measure the distance between the fingers and the toes (a negative score), if they overlap, measure by how much (a positive score).

Scoring: Perform two trials. A score is recorded to the nearest inch or 1 cm as the distance reached, either a negatyive or postive score. Record with leg was used for measurement.
(d) Back Stretch for Upper Body Flexibility
Aim: The Back Scratch Test measure flexibility of your upper body. Upper body’s flexibility affects your ability to reach for items that may be high on a shelf, change a light bulb, or do any activity that requires arm and/or shoulder movement. Maintaining flexibility in your upper body will assist you in continuing to live independently.
Equipment: Ruler
Procedure: Place your left arm straight up in the air above your left shoulder. Bend your left arm at the elbow to reach toward your back, with your fingers extended. Your elbow pointed toward the ceiling. Place your right hand behind your back with your palm out and your fingers extended up. Reach up as far as possible and attempt to touch the fingers of your two hands together. Some people are not able to touch at all, while other’s fingers may overlap. Take two practice stretches with each arm, determining which side is more flexible. You will be measuring and recording only your most flexible side. You are now ready to be measured. Perform the stretch as outlined above.
Without shifting your hands your test partner will position your fingers so that they are pointing toward each other.

Scoring: The distance between the finger tips of one hand and ther other is measured to the nearest half inch or centimeters. If your fingers overlap, the amount of the overlap will be measured. Fingertips just touching receive a score of “0”. If your fingers do not touch, you receive a negative score of the distance between your fingers, measured to the nearest half inch or centimeters.
(e) Eight Foot Up and Go Test for Agility
Aim: The ‘8 Foot Up and Go’ is a coordination and agility test for the elderly, which is a part of the Senior Fitness Test. This test measures speed, agility and balance while moving.
Equipments required: Stopwatch, straight back or folding chair (about 17 inches/44 cm high), one marker, measuring tape, area clear of obstacles.
Procedure: Place the chair next to a wall (for safety) and the marker 8 feet of the chair. Clear the path between the chair and the marker. The subject starts fully seated, hands resting on the knees and feet flat on the ground. On the command, “Go,” timing is started and the subject stands and walks (no running) as quickly as possible (and safely) to and around the cone, returning to the chair to sit down. Timing stops as they sit down.

Purpose: To assess aerobic fitness or aerobic endurance which is important for walking distances, stair climbing, shopping and sightseeing etc.
Equipment: Stop watch. *
Rectangular ground measuring 20 x 5 yds.

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IMPORTANT QUESTIONS 

1 Mark Questions
Question.1. What is a test in sports?
Answer. In scientific terms, test means an instrument to be used for measuring anything. It may be running, walking etc. (for fitness testing)

1. Pull-Ups for boys/Flexed arm hang for girls
2.  Flexed leg sit ups
3.  Shuttle run
4.  Standing long jump
5.  50 yard dash
6.  600 yard run-walk

• Test 1 tests the strength of the abdominal and psoas muscles.
• Test 2 tests the strength of the abdominal muscles.
• Test 3 tests the strength of the psoas muscles.
• Test 4 tests the strength of the upper back.
•  Test 5 tests the strength of the lower back.
• Test 6 tests the strength of the back and hamstring muscles.

1. Chair stand test for lower body strength.
2.  Arm curl test for upper body strength and endurance.
3. Chair sit and reach test for lower body flexibility.
4. Back scratch test for upper body flexibility.
5.  Eight foot up and go test for coordination and agility.
6.  Six minute walk test for aerobic fitness and endurance.

1. Place the chair against a wall or otherwise stabilise it for safety. The subject sits in the middle of the seat with his feet shoulder width apart, flat on the floor. The arms are to be crossed at the wrists and held close to the chest.
2.  From the sitting position, the subject stands completely up, then completely back down and this is repeated for 30 sec. Count the total number of complete chair stands (up and down equals one stand).

1. Place the chair next to a wall (for safety) and the marker 8 feet in front of the chair. Clear the ( path between the chair and the marker.
2.  The subject should start fully seated, hands resting on the knees and feet flat on the ground.
3. On the command ‘Go’, the timing is started and the subject stands and walks (no running is allowed) as quickly as possible as to and around the cone, returning to the chair to sit down.
4.  The score is the better time of two trials to the nearest 1/10th of a sec.

1. The subject sits on the chair holding the weight (8 pounds for men / 5 pounds for women) in the hand using a suitcase grip (palm facing towards the body) with the arm in a vertically down position beside the chair.
2. The upper arm is placed against the body so that only the lower arm is moving (the tester may assist to hold the upper arm steady).
3. The subject curls the arm up through a full range of motion, gradually turning the palm up (flexion with supination).
4.  Then the arm is lowered through the full range of motion, gradually return to the starting position. The arm must be fully bent and then fully straightened at the elbow.
5. Repeat this action as many times as possible within 30 sec.
6.  The score is the total number of controlled arm curls performed in 30 sec.

1. The subject sits on the edge of the chair (placed against a wall for safety). One foot must remain flat on the floor. The other leg is extended forward with the knee straight, heel touching the floor, with ankle bent at 90°.
2.  Place one hand on top of the other with tips of the middle fingers even, exhale and reach forward towards the toes by bending at the hip. Keep the back straight and head up.
3. Avoid bouncing or quick movements and never stretch to the point of pain. Keep the knee straight and hold the reach for 2 sec.
4. The distance to be measured is between the finger tips and the toes. If the finger tips touch the toes, the score is zero. If they do not touch, measure the distance between the fingers and the toes (a negative score); if they overlap, measure by how much (a positive score).
5.  Perform two trials and record the better score to the nearest 1/2 inch or 1 cm as the distance reached, either as a negative or positive score. Record which leg was used for measurement.

1.  Increasing the heart rate and stroke volume.
2.  Increasing the cardiac output.
3.  Increase in the size of lungs and the heart.

• Test 1 tests the strength of the abdominal and psoas muscles.
• Test 2 tests the strength of the abdominal muscles.
•  Test 3 tests the strength of the psoas muscles.
•  Test 4 tests the strength of the upper back.
• Test 5 tests the strength of the lower back.
• Test 6 tests the strength of the back and hamstring muscles.

1.  Pull ups (for boys) / Flexed arm hang (for girls) to measure arm and shoulder strength.
2.  Flexed leg sit ups to measure abdominal strength and endurance.
3. Shuttle run to measure speed and agility.
4.  Standing long jump to measure power.
5.  50 yard dash to measure speed.
6. 600 yard run-walk to measure endurance.

• Purpose This test measures lower body flexibility.
• Equipment Required Ruler, straight back or folding chair (seat 17 inch/ 44 cm high).
• Procedure The subject sits on the edge of the chair placed against a wall for safety.

1.  Chair Stand Test – testing lower body strength
2. Arm Curl Test – testing upper body strength
3. Chair sit and Reach Test – lower body flexibility test
4.  Back Scratch Test – upper body flexibility test
5.  8 Foot Up and Go Test – agility test
6. Walk Test (6 min) or Step in Place Test (2 min) – The Walk Test is used to assess aerobic fitness; however, if the person uses orthopedic devices when walking or has difficulty balancing, they do the Step in Place Test.